“However, when the tablet was illuminated with ultraviolet light, there
was no characteristic fluorescence indicative of fresh engraving scars. In
addition,
the biogenic black to reddish patina is covering and firmly attached to
the letters
with morphological continuity to the tablet surface …”.
A. Rosenfeld et al.
The tablet is
authentic according to the following expert view:
Archaeometric evidence for the authenticity of the
Jehoash Inscription Tablet
A gray, fine-grained arkosic sandstone tablet
bearing an inscription in ancient Hebrew from the First Temple Period contains
a rich assemblage of particles accumulated in the covering patina. Two types of
patina cover the tablet: a thin layer of black to orange iron-oxide-rich layer,
a product of micro-biogenic processes, and a light beige patina that contains
feldspars, carbonate, iron oxide, subangular quartz grains, carbon ash
particles and gold globules (1 to 4 micrometers [1 micrometer = 0.001
millimeter] in diameter). The patina covers the rock surface as well as the
engraved lettering grooves and blankets and thus post-dates the incised
inscription as well as a crack that runs across the stone and several of the
engraved letters. Radiocarbon analyses of the carbon particles in the patina
yield a calibrated radiocarbon age of 2340 to 2150 Cal BP. The presence of
microcolonial fungi and associated pitting in the patina indicates slow growth
over many years. The occurrence of pure gold globules is evidence of a thermal
event in close proximity to the tablet (above 1000 degrees Celsius). This study
supports the antiquity of the patina, which in turn, strengthens the contention
that the inscription is authentic.
By A. Rosenfeld
Geological Survey of Israel
S. Ilani
Geological Survey of Israel
H. R. Feldman
The Anna Ruth and Mark Hasten School, A Division of Touro College
Division of Paleontology (Invertebrates), American Museum of Natural History
W. E. Krumbein
Department of Geomicrobiology, ICBM, Carl von Ossietzky Universitaet, Oldenburg, Germany
J. Kronfeld
Department of Geophysics and Planetary Sciences, Tel-Aviv University
November 2008
Geological Survey of Israel
S. Ilani
Geological Survey of Israel
H. R. Feldman
The Anna Ruth and Mark Hasten School, A Division of Touro College
Division of Paleontology (Invertebrates), American Museum of Natural History
W. E. Krumbein
Department of Geomicrobiology, ICBM, Carl von Ossietzky Universitaet, Oldenburg, Germany
J. Kronfeld
Department of Geophysics and Planetary Sciences, Tel-Aviv University
November 2008
INTRODUCTION
Our team
of scientists spent some time examining the Jehoash Inscription tablet (JI)
from the point of view of hard science (Ilani et al., 2002; 2008). Our goal was
to determine, based solely on scientific evidence, whether the tablet is a
forgery or genuine. Since this tablet represents the only Judahite royal
inscription found to date, it is of critical importance to history and Biblical
Archaeology. The tablet is engraved with an inscription in ancient Hebrew that
commemorates the renovation of the First Temple carried out by King Jehoash (9th century B.C.E. = 2800 years BP).
A similar
account of the Temple repairs is also found in Kings II: 12. According to Cohen
(2007; 2008), the translation of the 16 lines of the ancient Hebrew is as
follows:
I.
Prologue (lines 1-4)
[I am
Yeho'ash, son of
A]hazyahu,
k[ing over Ju]dah,
and I
executed the re[pai]rs.
II. Body
of the inscription (lines 4-14)
When
men's hearts became
replete
with generosity in
the
(densely populated) land and in the (sparsely
populated)
steppe, and in all the cities of Judah, to
donate
money for the sacred
contributions
abundantly,
in order
to purchase quarry
stone and
juniper wood and
Edomite
copper / copper from (the city of) ‘Adam,
(and) in
order to perform
the work
faithfully (=without corruption),—
(Then) I
renovated the
breach(es)
of the Temple
and of
the surrounding
walls,
and the storied structure,
and the
meshwork, and the winding stairs,
and the
recesses, and the doors.
III.
Epilogue (lines 14-16)
May (this
inscribed stone) become this day
a witness
that the work has succeeded,
(and) may
God (thus) ordain His people with a blessing.
Analyses
of the tablet's epigraphy and philology to date have proven to be inconclusive
as to its authenticity (Ilani et al., 2002; 2008). Chemical, geologic and
petrographic analyses support the antiquity of the patina, which in turn,
strengthens the contention that the inscription is authentic.
THE
TABLET
The
general color of the fine-grained JI tablet is gray to black (Ilani et al.,
2002; 2008). A fissure, less than 0.5 millimeters (mm) in width, runs across
the central part of the tablet parallel to the broken upper edge, crossing ten
letters in four lines (Fig. 1). The crack fades inward toward the center of the
tablet and is almost invisible on its back. The presence of the crack favors
the authenticity of the inscription since a modern engraver would have known
that incising across this line of weakness would have jeopardized the
structural integrity of the tablet. The tablet broke into two separate pieces
along this fissure after being taken into custodial care by the Israel
Antiquity Authority (IAA).
The
sudden breakage of the tablet revealed that the top half of the fissure exhibits
some natural bleaching and incipient patina formation due to weathering whereas
the lower part of the tablet exhibits a clearly fresh line of breakage (Figs. 2
and 3).
Analysis
shows that the rock tablet is composed mainly of very small unsorted subangular
quartz grains and angular to subrounded, unsorted feldspar grains. When we
studied the rock in thin section (slices about 0.03mm in thickness) we found
that it is composed of the following minerals: quartz (35%), feldspars (55%),
epidote (3%), chlorite (1%), rutile and sphene (<1 1968="" 1987="" 2002="" a="" al.="" also="" amudei="" analysis="" ancient="" and="" are="" area="" arieh="" arkosic="" artifact.="" as="" aspersion="" authenticity="" available="" basin="" by="" cambrian="" carved="" cast="" classify="" confirmed="" dead="" definition="" deposition="" dr.="" eissbrod="" el-khadem="" ender="" erroneous.="" et="" examined="" formation="" formations="" formed.="" found="" from="" geological="" geology="" goren="" graywacke.="" has="" hieroglyphic="" however="" hundreds="" identification="" implications="" in="" inscriptions="" iron="" is="" israel="" ji="" jordan="" judea.="" kingdoms="" lani="" led="" levant.="" local="" made="" mainly="" metamorphic="" middle="" new="" not="" note="" occurs="" of.="" of="" often="" on="" opaques="" original="" our="" outcrops="" oxides="" part="" petrographer="" provenance="" reported="" rock="" rocks="" same="" sandstone.="" sandstone="" sea="" section="" serabit="" shechoret="" shelomo="" shimron="" sinai="" south="" southern="" southwest="" span="" stelae="" stone="" such="" survey="" tablet="" temple="" that="" the="" their="" them="" therefore="" these="" thin="" this="" thus="" timna="" to="" type="" upper="" was="" which="" with="" workers="" yehoash="">
Many of
the incised letters exhibit defects in shape at their edges. These defects are
due to the detachment of quartz and feldspar grains during the erosion and
weathering of the sandstone.
THE PATINA
The
patina is the outer crust that was formed due to chemical and biological
conditions resulting from weathering of the rock and the material interacted
and accreted from its burial environment. The patina on the side of the
inscription is composed of two layers (Figs. 4 and 5). The first thin layer, up
to 1 mm thick, is attached firmly to the rock. This film-like black to
reddish-brown iron oxide, covers the surfaces of the tablet and the letters. As
the rock tablet contains about 5% iron oxides, we believe that the formation of
this film may be related to natural geobiological weathering processes. A
second layer, lighter in color, beige to ochre and up to 1 mm thick, is found
mostly within the letters but also on the surface that was partly cleaned. This
light patina covers also the fractures and the middle crack (Fig. 1; Ilani et
al., 2002, Fig.3; Ilani et al., 2008, Fig. 1b). It contains silica, feldspar
and carbonate minerals that form a texture of interlocking grains supported by
carbonate matrix that contains small carbon ash particles (Ilani et al., 2002,
Fig. 5). Some pure gold globules of 1-4 micrometers in diameter were also
detected (Ilani et al., 2002, Fig. 6). The patina obviously was formed
naturally because the tablet was buried for an extensive period within a tel or
soil environment. We can exclude a cave as the site of deposition.
The
patina on the surface carrying the inscription is composed of elements derived
from the tablet itself (e.g., quartz and feldspar grains) as well as from the
environment (dolomite, limestone, carbon ash particles, and gold globules). The
patina on the back of the tablet has the same composition but with some silica
and carbonate in one place (about 2.5 cm in diameter) near the top of the
tablet. This siliceous-carbonate material could be an original vein filling
within a bedding plane or a joint in the original rock, similar to those found
in the clastic rocks exposed in southern Israel and Sinai, and may represent a
natural rock fissure along which the rock was detached for further processing
as is the case in many quarries. Thus, the remnants of a vein were thought to
be the "real" patina by Goren et al., (2004). The fact that it does
not appear on the inscription surface was proof that the inscription was forged.
Moreover,
Goren et al., (2004) suggest that the patina on the inscribed face of the
tablet is too soft to be regarded as genuine. However, we propose that the
softness or hardness of the patina cannot be used as an indicator of
authenticity, especially as we reported that the light patina had been exposed
to cleaning. But the biogenic black-reddish patina with the pitting made by
microorganisms is firmly connected to the stone (Figs. 2-3).
The
suggestion by Goren et al., (2004, p. 14) that "heated water was used to
harden and ensure good adhesion of the patina" seems to us unfounded.
After
production and the engraving of the JI inscription, the tablet underwent
significant changes by burial processes, especially by cleaning and enhancement
after excavation. The surface of the JI, as well as the letters, is covered by
continuous black-reddish and beige patina layers (Figs. 4-6). No indications of
adhesive materials or other artificial substances that could indicate addition,
pasting, or dispersion of artificial patina on the inscribed face of the tablet
have been observed.
AGE OF
THE PATINA
Carbon
ash particles are trapped within the patina. Samples of the patina were
radiocarbon dated at an age of 2340 to 2150 years ago (Ilani et. al., 2008;
t\Table 2).
GOLD
GLOBULES
The gold
globules that we detected are minute, usually 1 to 2 micrometers in diameter
and were found in 4 of the 9 samples taken from the patina (Ilani et al., 2002,
Fig. 6). The gold is in the form of individual globules of well sorted size
(1-4 micrometers). The distribution of the globules detected by a scanning
electron microscope (SEM) is approximately 10 globules per square mm and the
total weight of the globules in the patina was calculated to be to less than
0.001 g for the entire tablet.
MICROCOLONIAL
FUNGI
Microcolonial
Fungi (MCF) are known to concentrate and deposit manganese and iron and play a
key role in the alteration and biological weathering of rocks and minerals.
They are microorganisms of high survivability, inhabiting rocks in extreme
conditions and are also known to survive in subsurface and subaerial environments.
We found
long-living black yeast-like fungi that form pitted embedded circular
structures of 20-500 micrometers in size on the patina (inside the letters
[Fig. 4] as well Ilani et al., 2008, Figs. 9,10). A Nabbatean flint instrument
from Avdat, southern Israel, 2,000 years old, shows an identical MCF black
red-brown coloration and pitted circular structures as in the JI tablet. These
fungal colonies (identified as Coniosporium sp. and related species) grow very
slowly over dozens to hundreds of years.
DISCUSSION
We found
a rich assemblage of different particles within the patina of the JI tablet
that contains feldspars, carbonate, iron oxide, subangular quartz grains,
carbon ash particles and gold globules (1 to 4 micrometers in diameter). Goren
et al., (2004) claimed that gold globules were incorporated into the patina by
a forger. Gold powder comprised of globules 1-2 micrometers in diameter does
not exist in the modern gold market as suggested by them. Gold globules in
today's market are of a wide range and mix of sizes, the smallest diameter
being 500 micrometers. However, gold powder or dust, with an average size
between 70 to 80 micrometers, has an angular shape. Native gold dust from
Sardis, Turkey contains irregular flattened flakes with rounded edges, 100-500
micrometers in size, but not globules. According to Meeks (2000), pure gold
globules of 3-300 micrometers in diameter were found in the production and
refining site of Sardis resulting from melting processes. One would expect many
gold globules of various sizes to occur in clustered aggregates in the patina
if it were of recent origin, but this is clearly not the case. The small
amounts detected and its distribution would be difficult to produce within any
artificial patina. The occurrence of pure gold globules (1-2 micrometers) is
evidence of the melting of gold artifacts or gold-gilded items (above 1000
degrees Celsius).
Exposures
of Cretaceous marine carbonate rocks are abundant in Jerusalem and provide a
majority of its building stone. Indeed, well preserved marine carbonate
microfossils that were found within the patina were derived from the weathering
of these exposed rocks as well as by wind transport. These minute fossils occur
in abundance in everyday dust in Jerusalem (Ehrenberg, 1860; Ganor, 1975) as
well as in the local soils. But, Goren et al., (2004) claimed that their
finding of foraminifera (microfossils) within the patina of the engraved
surface of the JI tablet is a proof of a fake patina. We maintain that these
microfossils within the patina can be easily explained as a component of a
genuine patina derived from the surrounding Cretaceous marine carbonate rocks
that are ubiquitous in the Judean Mountains. Indeed, their absence within a
patina purportedly coming from the Jerusalem area would be suspicious since the
entire city is situated upon these marine rock exposures. These microfossils
should be as plentiful in the historical past as they are today. We therefore
strongly disagree that these microfossils are an indication of forgery.
Goren et
al, (2004) claimed that the engraved marks of the letters are fresh. They said
that signs of fresh cuttings and polishing are exposed within the letters.
Fresh engraving can be easily revealed by illuminating the tablet with
ultraviolet light (Newman, 1990). However, when the tablet was illuminated with
ultraviolet light, there was no characteristic fluorescence indicative of fresh
engraving scars. In addition, the biogenic black to reddish patina is covering
and firmly attached to the letters with morphological continuity to the tablet
surface (Figs. 2, 3 and 6).
Based
upon the results of four oxygen isotopic analyses of the carbonate patina,
Goren et al., (2004) concluded that the tablet must be a fake. Yet, of the four
samples only two can be related to carbonate precipitation from fresh water.
The two enriched ("heavy") delta O18 (capital O is the
chemistry symbol of oxygen; delta O18 is the measured ratio of the O18/O16
isotopes of the oxygen) values (-1.7 per thousand and –0.9 per thousand PDB) of
the patina carbonate presented by Goren et al. (2004) can be attributed to the
predominance of a marine carbonate component (upon which Jerusalem sits and its
building stone is made). The conclusion that the patina must be a fake is thus
drawn upon the basis of the only two depleted delta O18 patina analyses which
they compared to the delta O18 values preserved in dated stalagmite caves in
the Jerusalem area (Goren et al., 2004, p. 7 and Fig. 9). They concluded that
the delta O18 values of the carbonate patina are too depleted to have been
derived from natural meteoric water of the region and therefore claimed
evidence of fraud. However, there are ways that isotopically depleted carbonate
can be generated and incorporated into a genuine patina. One example is a
thermal event. It has recently been brought to our attention that an isotopic
study of white crusts that cover limestones that had been burned during the
destruction of the Second Temple at 70 C.E. show depleted delta O18 PDB values
(-10.7 per thousand -13.4 per thousand) (Dr. A. Shimron, personal
communication, 2004). Therefore such isotopic depleted carbonate values are
found in the Jerusalem area. ….
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